1. C Language Material Pdf In Telugu Free
2. C Language Material Pdf In Telugu Download

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Telugu (English: /ˈtɛlʊɡuː/;^[4]తెలుగు[teluɡu]) is a Dravidian language spoken in the Indian states of Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and the union territories of Puducherry (Yanam) by the Telugu people. It stands alongside Hindi, English and Bengali as one of the few languages with primary official language status in more than one Indian state.^[5][6] There are also significant linguistic minorities in neighbouring states. It is one of six languages designated a classical language of India by the country's government.^[7][8]

Telugu ranks fourth among the languages with the highest number of native speakers in India, with 6.93 percent at the 2011 census,^[9] and fifteenth in the Ethnologue list of most widely-spoken languages worldwide.^[10][11] It is the most widely spoken member of the Dravidian language family.^[12] It is one of the twenty-two scheduled languages of the Republic of India.^[13] Roughly 10,000 pre-colonial inscriptions exist in the Telugu language.^[14]

• 2History
• 6Dialects
• 7Phonology
  • 7.2Vowels
• 8Grammar
  • 8.1Morphosyntax
  • 8.2Pronouns
• 10Writing system
• 11Literature

Etymology[edit]

Speakers of Telugu refer to it as simply Telugu.^[15] Older forms of the name include Teluṅgu, Tenuṅgu and Teliṅga.^[16]

The etymology of Telugu is not certain. Some historical scholars^[which?] have suggested a derivation from Sanskrittriliṅgam, as in Trilinga Desam, 'the country of the three lingas'.^{[citation needed]}

Atharvana Acharya in the 13th century wrote a grammar of Telugu, calling it the Trilinga Śabdānusāsana (or Trilinga Grammar).^[17] Appa Kavi in the 17th century explicitly wrote that Telugu was derived from Trilinga. Scholar Charles P. Brown made a comment that it was a 'strange notion' since the predecessors of Appa Kavi had no knowledge of such a derivation.^[18]

George Abraham Grierson and other linguists doubt this derivation, holding rather that Telugu was the older term and Trilinga must be the later Sanskritisation of it.^[19][20] If so the derivation itself must have been quite ancient because Triglyphum, Trilingum and Modogalingam are attested in ancient Greek sources, the last of which can be interpreted as a Telugu rendition of 'Trilinga'.^[21]

Another view^[whose?] holds that tenugu is derived from the proto-Dravidian word ten ('south')^[22] to mean 'the people who lived in the south/southern direction' (relative to Sanskrit and Prakrit-speaking peoples). The name Telugu, then, is a result of an 'n' to 'l' alternation established in Telugu.^[23][24]

History[edit]

According to linguist Bhadriraju Krishnamurti, Telugu, as a Dravidian language, descends from Proto-Dravidian, a proto-language. Linguistic reconstruction suggests that Proto-Dravidian was spoken around the third millennium BCE, possibly in the region around the lower Godavari river basin in peninsular India.^[29] According to the Russian linguist Mikhail S. Andronov, Telugu split from the Proto-Dravidian language between 1000 and 1500 BC.^[30][31]

A legend gives the town of Lepakshi a significant place in the Ramayanam. This was where the bird Jatayu fell, wounded after a futile battle against Ravana who was carrying away Sita. When Sri Rama reached the spot, he saw the bird and said compassionately, 'Le, Pakshi' — translated to ‘rise, bird’.^[32][33] This indicates the presence of Telugu Language in ancient Indian literature.^{[citation needed]}

Earliest records[edit]

Prakrit Inscriptions with some Telugu words dating back to between 400 BCE and 100 BCE have been discovered in Bhattiprolu in the Guntur district of Andhra Pradesh.^[34] The English translation of an inscription reads, 'gift of the slab by venerable Midikilayakha'.^[35][36][37]

The coin legends of the Satavahanas, in all areas and all periods, used a Prakrit dialect without exception. Some reverse coin legends are in Tamil,^[38] and Telugu languages.^[39][40]

Certain exploration and excavation missions conducted by the Archaeological Department in and around the Keesaragutta temple have brought to light, a number of brick temples, cells and other structures encompassed by brick prakaram along with coins, beads, stucco figures, garbhapatra, pottery, and Brahmi label inscriptions datable to 4th and 5th centuries CE. On top of one of the rock-cut caves, an early Telugu label inscription reading as ‘Thulachuvanru’ can be noticed. On the basis of palaeography, the inscription is dated around the 4th to 5th centuries CE.^[41]

One of the first words in the Telugu language, 'Nagabu', was found in a Sanskrit inscription of the 1st century B.C at Amaravathi (not to be confused with the newly planned city of Amaravati).^[42][43] Telugu words were also found in the Dharmasila inscription of Emperor Ashoka. A number of Telugu words were found in the Sanskrit and Prakrit inscriptions of the Satavahanas, Vishnukundinas, and Ikshwakas.

According to Telugu lore, its grammar has a prehistoric past. Sage kanva was said to be the language’s first grammarian. A Rajeswara Sarma discussed the historicity and content of Kanva's grammar. He cited twenty grammatical aphorisms ascribed to Kanva, and concluded that Kanva wrote an ancient Telugu Grammar which was lost.^[44]

'The Bhattiprolu stone Buddhist casket in proto Telugu belongs to BCE 300,^[37]:232 the Erragudi Asokan Rock Edict in Proto Telugu belongs to 257 BCE (DC Sarkar’s Ashokan Studies, Calcutta 1979 pages 7–8), the Ghantasala Brahmin inscription^[45] and the pillar inscription of Vijaya Satakarni, Vijayapuri, Nagarjunakonda etc., belongs to First Century CE. Further, Tummalagudem inscription of Vishnukundinas belongs to 5th Century CE. (Epigraphia Andhrika, Vol.ii pages 9 to 14)”.^{[46][47][48][49]}

Post-Ikshvaku period[edit]

The period from 575 CE to 1022 CE corresponds to the second phase of Telugu history, after the Andhra Ikshvaku period. This is evidenced by the first inscription that is entirely in Telugu, dated 575 CE, which was found in the Rayalaseema region and is attributed to the Renati Cholas, who broke with the prevailing custom of using Sanskrit and began writing royal proclamations in the local language. During the next fifty years, Telugu inscriptions appeared in Anantapuram and other neighbouring regions.^[50] The Madras Museum plates of Balliya-Choda dated to the mid ninth century AD are the earliest copper plate grants in the Telugu language.^[51]

Telugu was more influenced by Sanskrit and Prakrit during this period, which corresponded to the advent of Telugu literature. Telugu literature was initially found in inscriptions and poetry in the courts of the rulers, and later in written works such as Nannayya's Mahabharatam (1022 AD).^[52] During the time of Nannayya, the literary language diverged from the popular language. It was also a period of phonetic changes in the spoken language.

Middle Ages[edit]

The third phase is marked by further stylization and sophistication of the literary languages. During this period the split of the Telugu from Kannada alphabets took place.^[53]Tikkana wrote his works in this script.

Vijayanagara Empire[edit]

The Vijayanagara Empire gained dominance from 1336 to the late 17th century, reaching its peak during the rule of Krishnadevaraya in the 16th century, when Telugu literature experienced what is considered its Golden Age.^[52]

Delhi Sultanate and Mughal influence[edit]

A distinct dialect developed in present day Telangana region, due to Persian/Arabic influence: the Delhi Sultanate of the Tughlaq dynasty was established earlier in the northern Deccan Plateau during the 14th century. In the latter half of the 17th century, the Mughal Empire extended further south, culminating in the establishment of the Hyderabad State by the dynasty of the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1724. This heralded an era of Persian influence on the Telugu language, especially Hyderabad State. The effect is also evident in the prose of the early 19th century, as in the Kaifiyats.^[52]

In the princely Hyderabad State, the Andhra Mahasabha was started in 1921 with the main intention of promoting Telugu language, literature, its books and historical research led by Madapati Hanumantha Rao (the founder of the Andhra Mahasabha), Komarraju Venkata Lakshmana Rao (Founder of Library Movement in Hyderabad State), Suravaram Pratapareddy and others.

Colonial period[edit]

The 16th-century Venetian explorer Niccolò de' Conti, who visited the Vijayanagara Empire, found that the words in the Telugu language end with vowels, just like those in Italian, and hence referred it as 'The Italian of the East';^[54] a saying that has been widely repeated.^[55]

In the late 19th and the early 20th centuries, the influence of the English language was seen, and modern communication/printing press arose as an effect of the British rule, especially in the areas that were part of the Madras Presidency. Literature from this time had a mix of classical and modern traditions and included works by such scholars as Gidugu Venkata Ramamoorty, Kandukuri Veeresalingam, Gurazada Apparao, Gidugu Sitapati and Panuganti Lakshminarasimha Rao.^[52]

Since the 1930s, what was considered an elite literary form of the Telugu language, has now spread to the common people with the introduction of mass media like movies, television, radio and newspapers. This form of the language is also taught in schools and colleges as a standard.^{[citation needed]}

Post-independence period[edit]

• Telugu is one of the 22 languages with official status in India
• The Andhra Pradesh Official Language Act, 1966, declares Telugu the official language of the state that is currently divided into Andhra Pradesh and Telangana^[56][57]
• Telugu also has official language status in the Yanam district of the union territory of Puducherry
• The fourth World Telugu Conference was organised in Tirupati in the last week of December 2012 and deliberated at length on issues related to Telugu language policy
• Telugu is the 3rd most spoken Indian language in India after Hindi and Bengali
• The American Community Survey has said that data for 2016 which were released in September 2017 say Telugu is the third most widely spoken Indian language in the US. Hindi tops the list followed by Gujarati, as of 2010 census^[58]

Epigraphical records[edit]

According to the famous Japanese Historian Noboru Karashima who served as the President of the Epigraphical Society of India in 1985, calculated that there are approximately 10,000 inscriptions which exist in the Telugu language as of the year 1996 making it one of the most densely inscribed languages.^[14] Telugu inscriptions are found in all the districts of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana.^{[41][59][60][61]} They are also found in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, and Chhattisgarh.^{[62][61][63][64]} According to recent estimates by ASI (Archaeological Survey of India) the number of inscriptions in Telugu language goes up to 14,000.^[59][65] Namely Adilabad, Nizamabad, Hyderabad, Anantapur, and Chittoor — produced no more than a handful of Telugu inscriptions in the Kakatiya era spanning between 1175–1324 CE.^[66][67]

Telugu region boundaries[edit]

Andhra is characterised as having its own mother tongue, and its territory has been equated with the extent of the Telugu language. The equivalence between the Telugu linguistic sphere and geographical boundaries of Andhra is also brought out in an eleventh century description of Andhra boundaries. Andhra, according to this text, was bounded in north by Mahendra mountain in the modern Ganjam District of Orissa and to the south by Kalahasti temple in Chittor District. But Andhra extended westwards as far as Srisailam in the Kurnool District, about halfway across the modern state. Page number-36.^[68] According to other sources in the early sixteenth century, the northern boundary is Simhachalam and the southern limit is Tirupati or Tirumala Hill of the Telugu Country.^{[69][70][71][72][73][74]}

Telugu place names[edit]

Telugu place names are present all around Andhra Pradesh and Telangana. Common suffixes are -ooru, -pudi, -pedu, -peta, -patnam, -wada, -giri, -cherla, -seema, -gudem, -palle, -palem and -palli. Examples that use this are Tadepalligudem, Guntur, Chintalapudi, Yerpedu, Suryapeta, Vemulawada, Visakapatnam, Ananthagiri HillsVijayawada, Vuyyuru, Macherla, Poranki, Ramagundam, Warangal, Mancherial, Peddapalli, Bellampalli, Siddipet, Banswada, Miryalagudem etc. They can also be seen in the border areas of Tamil Nadu.

Dialects[edit]

There are three major dialects: Andhra dialect spoken in the coastal districts of Andhra Pradesh, Rayalaseema dialect spoken in the four Rayalaseema districts of Andhra Pradesh and finally Telangana dialect, laced with Urdu words, spoken mainly in Telangana.^[75]

Waddar, Chenchu, and Manna-Dora are all closely related to Telugu.^[76] Other dialects of Telugu are Berad, Dasari, Dommara, Golari, Kamathi, Komtao, Konda-Reddi, Salewari, Vadaga, Srikakula, Vishakhapatnam, East Godaveri, Rayalseema, Nellore, Guntur, Vadari and Yanadi.^[77]

In Karnataka the dialect sees more influence of Kannada and is a bit different from what is spoken in Andhra region. There are significant populations of Telugu speakers in the eastern districts of Karnataka viz. Bangalore Urban, Bellary, Chikballapur and Kolar.

In Tamil Nadu the Telugu dialect is classified into Hosur, Salem, Coimbatore, Vellore, Tiruvannamalai and Madras Telugu dialects. It is also spoken in pockets of Krishnagiri, Virudhunagar, Tuticorin, Tirunelveli, Madurai, Theni, Madras (Chennai) and Thanjavur districts.

In Sri Lanka, an ethnic gypsy minority known as the Ahikuntakas (otherwise called Kuravars) in the Batticaloa district speak a localised dialect in the form of Sri Lanka Gypsy Telugu.

Geographic distribution[edit]

Telugu is natively spoken in the states of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana and Yanam district of Puducherry. Telugu speaking migrants are also found in the neighboring states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, some parts of Jharkhand and the Kharagpur region of West Bengal in India. At 7.2% of the population, Telugu is the third-most-spoken language in the Indian subcontinent after Hindi and Bengali. In Karnataka, 7.0% of the population speak Telugu, and 5.6% in Tamil Nadu.^[78]

The Telugu diaspora numbers more than 800,000 in the United States, with the highest concentration in CentralNew Jersey (Little Andhra^[79]); Telugu speakers are found as well in Australia, New Zealand, Bahrain, Canada (Toronto), Fiji, Malaysia, Singapore, Mauritius, Myanmar, Europe (Italy, Netherlands, Belgium, France, Germany, Ireland and the United Kingdom), South Africa, Trinidad and Tobago, and the United Arab Emirates.

Phonology[edit]

The Roman transliteration of the Telugu script is in National Library at Kolkata romanisation.

Telugu words generally end in vowels. In Old Telugu, this was absolute; in the modern language m, n, y, w may end a word. Atypically for a Dravidian language, voiced consonants were distinctive even in the oldest recorded form of the language. Sanskrit loans have introduced aspirated and murmured consonants as well.

Telugu does not have contrastive stress, and speakers vary on where they perceive stress. Most place it on the penultimate or final syllable, depending on word and vowel length.^[80]

Consonants[edit]

The table below lists the consonantal phonemes of Telugu,^[81][82] along with the symbols used in the transliteration of the Telugu script used here.

*The aspirated and breathy-voiced consonants occur mostly in loan words, as do the fricatives apart from native /s/.

Most consonants contrast in length in word-medial position, meaning that there are long (geminated) and short phonetic renderings of the sounds. A few examples of words that contrast by length of word-medial consonants:^[82]

• /ɡɐdi/ gadi ‘room’ – /ɡɐdːi/ gaddi ‘throne’
• /ɐʈu/ aṭu ‘that side’ – /ɐʈːu/ aṭṭu ‘pancake’
• /moɡɐ/ moga ‘male’ – /moɡːɐ/ mogga ‘bud’
• /nɐmɐkɐmu/ namakamu ‘a vedic hymn’ – /nɐmːɐkɐmu/ nammakamu ‘belief’
• /kɐnu/ kanu ‘to give birth to’ – /kɐnːu/ kannu ‘eye’
• /kɐlɐ/ kala ‘dream’ – /kɐlːɐ/ kalla ‘falsehood’
• /mɐɾi/ mari ‘again’ – /mɐɾːi/ marri ‘banyan tree’

All retroflex consonants occur in intervocalic position and when adjacent to a retroflex consonant, for instance. /ʋɐːɳiː/ vāṇī ‘tippet’, /kɐʈɳɐm/ kaṭṇam ‘dowry’, /pɐɳɖu/ paṇḍu ‘fruit’; /kɐɭɐ/ kaḷa ‘art’, /bɐːɭʈi/ bāḷṭi ‘bucket’ (from Portuguesebalde ‘bucket’). With the exception of /ɳ/ and /ɭ/, all occur word-initial in a few words, such as /ʈɐkːu/ ṭakku ‘pretence’, /ʈ^hiːʋi/ ṭhīvi ‘grandeur’, /ɖipːɐ/ ḍippā ‘half of a spherical object’, /ɖ^ɦoːkɐː/ ḍhōkā ‘danger’, and /ʂoːku/ ṣōku ‘fashionable appearance’.^[82]

The approximant /j/ occurs in word-initial position only in borrowed words, such as. /jɐnɡu/ yangu, from English ‘young’, /jɐʃɐsːu/ yaśassu from Sanskrit yaśas /jɑʃɑs/ ‘fame’.

Vowels[edit]

Vowels in Telugu contrast in length; there are short and long versions of all vowels except for /æ/, which only occurs as long. Long vowels can occur in any position within the word, but native Telugu words do not end in a long vowel. Short vowels occur in all positions of a word, with the exception of /o/, which does not occur word-finally.^[82] The vowels of Telugu are illustrated below, along with the Telugu script and romanization.

Allophones[edit]

C Language Material Pdf In Telugu Free

In most dialects, the vowel /æː/ only occurs in loan words. In the Guntur dialect, [æː] is a frequent allophone of /aː/ in certain verbs in the past tense.

Telugu has two diphthongs: /ai/ ఐ ai and /au/ ఔ au .

Vowel harmony[edit]

Telugu features a form of vowel harmony wherein the second vowel in disyllabic noun and adjective roots alters according to whether the first vowel is tense or lax.^{[83][need illustrations]} Also, if the second vowel is open (i.e., /aː/ or /a/), then the first vowel is more open and centralized (e.g., [mɛːka] 'goat', as opposed to [meːku] 'nail').^{[citation needed]} Telugu words also have vowels in inflectional suffixes that are harmonized with the vowels of the preceding syllable.^[84]

Grammar[edit]

The traditional study of Telugu Grammar is known as vyākaranam (వ్యాకరణం). The first treatise on Telugu grammar, the Āndhra Śabda Cinṭāmaṇi, was written in Sanskrit by Nannayya, considered the first Telugu poet and translator, in the 11th century CE. This grammar followed patterns described in grammatical treatises such as Aṣṭādhyāyī and Vālmīkivyākaranam, but unlike Pāṇini, Nannayya divided his work into five chapters, covering samjnā, sandhi, ajanta, halanta and kriya. Every Telugu grammatical rule is derived from Pāṇinian concepts.

In the 19th century, Chinnaya Suri wrote a condensed work on Telugu grammar called Bāla Vyākaraṇam, borrowing concepts and ideas from Nannayya's grammar.

Morphosyntax[edit]

Relations between participants in an event are coded in Telugu words through suffixation; there are no prefixes or infixes in the language.^[81] There are six word classes in Telugu: nominals (proper nouns, pronouns), verbs (actions or events), modifiers (adjectives, quantifiers, numerals), adverbs (modify the way in which actions or events unfold), and clitics.

Telugu nouns are inflected for number (singular, plural), noun class (three classes traditionally termed masculine, feminine, and neuter) and case (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative, vocative, instrumental, and locative).^[85]

Word order[edit]

The basic word order in Telugu is subject-object-verb (SOV).

The example above can also be interpreted as 'Rama will go to school', depending on the context, but it does not affect the SOV order.

Noun classes (gender)[edit]

As with other Dravidian languages, gender in Telugu follows a semantic system,^[86] in the sense that it is mostly the meaning of the word which defines the noun class to which it belongs. There are three noun classes: masculine (human males, he-gender), feminine (human females, she-gender), and neuter (all non-humans, it-gender). The gender of most nouns is encoded through agreement/indexation in pronominal suffixes rather than overtly on the noun.^[81]

In terms of the verbal agreement system, genders in marking on the Telugu verb only occurs in the third person.^[81]

The Telugu gender system is different from Dravidian languages like Tamil given that the Telugu feminine shares indexation morphemes with the masculine plural (-ru) and with the neuter singular (-di). What characterizes the three-gender system is then the individual behavior of the singular-plural pairs of suffixes.^[86]

Pronouns[edit]

Telugu pronouns include personal pronouns (the persons speaking, the persons spoken to, or the persons or things spoken about); indefinite pronouns; relative pronouns (connecting parts of sentences); and reciprocal or reflexive pronouns (in which the object of a verb is acted on by the verb's subject).

Personal pronouns[edit]

In informal Telugu, personal pronouns distinguish masculine from non-masculine.^[87][88]

Demonstratives[edit]

There is a wide variety of demonstrative pronouns in Telugu, whose forms depend on both proximity to the speaker and the level of formality. The formal demonstratives may also be used as formal personal pronoun, that is, the polite forms for this woman or this man and that woman or that man can also simply mean she and he in more formal contexts.

In the singular, there are four levels of formality when speaking about males and females, although the most formal/polite form is the same for both human genders. In both singular and plural, Telugu distinguishes two levels of distance from speaker (like in English), basically this and that, and these and those.

In the plural, there are no distinctions between formality levels, but once again masculine and feminine forms are the same, while the neuter demonstratives are different.

Case system[edit]

The nominative case (karta), the object of a verb (karma), and the verb are somewhat in a sequence in Telugu sentence construction. 'Vibhakti' (case of a noun) and 'pratyāyamulu' (an affix to roots and words forming derivatives and inflections) depict the ancient nature and progression of the language. The 'Vibhaktis' of Telugu language ' డు [ɖu], ము [mu], వు [vu], లు [lu]', etc., are different from those in Sanskrit and have been in use for a long time.

Lexicon[edit]

The lexicon of Telugu shows a pervasive influence of Sanskrit that goes back at least 1 500 years; however, there is evidence that suggests an older influence. During the period 1000–1100 CE, Nannaya's re-writing of the Mahābhārata in Telugu (మహాభారతము) re-established its use, and it dominated over the royal language, Sanskrit. Telugu absorbed tatsamas from Sanskrit.^[89]

The vocabulary of Telugu, especially in Telangana, has a trove of Persian–Arabic borrowings, which have been modified to fit Telugu phonology. This was due to centuries of Turkic rule in these regions, such as the erstwhile kingdoms of Golkonda and Hyderabad (e.g., కబురు, /kaburu/ for Urdu/xabar/, خبر or జవాబు, /dʒavaːbu/ for Urdu /dʒawɑːb/, جواب).

Modern Telugu vocabulary can be said to constitute a diglossia because the formal, standardised version of the language is either lexically Sanskrit or heavily influenced by Sanskrit, is taught in schools, and is used by the government and Hindu religious institutions. However, everyday Telugu varies depending upon region.

Writing system[edit]

The Telugu script is an abugida consisting of 60 symbols — 16 vowels, 3 vowel modifiers, and 41 consonants. Telugu has a complete set of letters that follow a system to express sounds. The script is derived from the Brahmi script like those of many other Indian languages.^{[90][circular reference]} The Telugu script is written from left to right and consists of sequences of simple and/or complex characters. The script is syllabic in nature—the basic units of writing are syllables. Since the number of possible syllables is very large, syllables are composed of more basic units such as vowels ('acchu' or 'swaram') and consonants ('hallu' or 'vyanjanam'). Consonants in consonant clusters take shapes that are very different from the shapes they take elsewhere. Consonants are presumed pure consonants, that is, without any vowel sound in them. However, it is traditional to write and read consonants with an implied 'a' vowel sound. When consonants combine with other vowel signs, the vowel part is indicated orthographically using signs known as vowel 'mātras'. The shapes of vowel 'mātras' are also very different from the shapes of the corresponding vowels.

Historically, a sentence used to end with either a single bar । ('pūrna virāmam') or a double bar ॥ ('dīrgha virāmam'); in handwriting, Telugu words were not separated by spaces. However, in modern times, English punctuation (commas, semicolon, etc.) has virtually replaced the old method of punctuation.^[91]

Telugu has full-zero (anusvāra) ( ం ), half-zero (arthanusvāra or candrabindu) (ఁ) and visarga ( ః ) to convey various shades of nasal sounds. [la] and [La], [ra] and [Ra] are differentiated.^[91]

Telugu has ĉ and ĵ, which are not represented in Sanskrit. Their pronunciation is similar to the 's' sound in the word treasure (i.e., the postalveolar voiced fricative) and 'z' sound in zebra, i.e., the alveolar voiced fricative, respectively.

Telugu Gunintālu (తెలుగు గుణింతాలు)[edit]

These are some examples of combining a consonant with different vowels.
క కా కి కీ కు కూ కృ కౄ కె కే కై కొ కో కౌ క్ కం కః
ఖ ఖా ఖి ఖీ ఖు ఖూ ఖృ ఖౄ ఖె ఖే ఖై ఖొ ఖో ఖౌ ఖ్ ఖం ఖః

Number system[edit]

Telugu has ten digits employed with the Hindu–Arabic numeral system. However, in modern usage, the Arabic numerals have replaced them.

Telugu is assigned Unicode codepoints: 0C00-0C7F (3072–3199).^[92]

Literature[edit]

The Pre-Nannayya Period (before 1020 CE)[edit]

In the earliest period Telugu literature existed in the form of inscriptions, precisely from 575 CE onward.

The Jain Literature Phase (850–1000 CE)[edit]

Prabandha Ratnavali (1918) & Pre-Nannayya Chandassu (Raja Raja Narendra Pattabhisekha Sanchika) by Veturi Prabhakara Sastry talk about the existence of Jain Telugu literature during 850-1000 CE. A verse from Telugu Jinendra Puranam by Padma Kavi (Pampa), a couple of verses from Telugu Adi Puranam by Sarvadeva and Kavijanasrayam (a Telugu Chandassu poetic guide for poets) affiliation to Jainism were discussed.

Historically, Vemulawada was a Jain knowledge hub and played a significant role in patronizing Jain literature and poets. Excavations in the 1980s around Vemulawada revealed and affirmed the existence of Telugu Jain literature.

Malliya Rechana - First Telugu Author (940 CE) - P.V.Parabrahma Sastry, Nidadavolu Venkata Rao .P.V.P Sastry also points out that many Jain works could have been destroyed. Historical rivalry among Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism is well known.

The Age of the Puranas (1020–1400 CE)[edit]

This is the period of Kavi Trayam or Trinity of Poets. Nannayya, Tikkana and Yerrapragada (or Errana) are known as the Kavi Trayam.

Nannaya Bhattarakudu or Adi Kavi (1022–1063 CE)[edit]

Nannaya Bhattarakudu's (Telugu: నన్నయ) Andhra mahabharatam, who lived around the 11th century, is commonly referred to as the first Telugu literary composition (aadi kaavyam).[citation needed] Although there is evidence of Telugu literature before Nannaya, he is given the epithet Aadi Kavi ('the first poet'). Nannaya was the first to establish a formal grammar of written Telugu. This grammar followed the patterns which existed in grammatical treatises like Aṣṭādhyāyī and Vālmīkivyākaranam but unlike Pāṇini, Nannayya divided his work into five chapters, covering samjnā, sandhi, ajanta, halanta and kriya.[14] Nannaya completed the first two chapters and a part of the third chapter of the Mahabharata epic, which is rendered in the Champu style.

Tikkana Somayaji (1205–1288 CE): Nannaya's Andhra Mahabharatam was almost completed by Tikanna Somayaji (Telugu: తిక్కన సోమయాజి) (1205–1288) who wrote chapters 4 to 18.

Yerrapragada : (Telugu: ఎర్రాప్రగడ) who lived in the 14th century, finished the epic by completing the third chapter. He mimics Nannaya's style in the beginning, slowly changes tempo and finishes the chapter in the writing style of Tikkana. These three writers – Nannaya, Tikanna and Yerrapragada – are known as the Kavitraya ('three great poets') of Telugu. Other such translations like Marana’s Markandeya Puranam, Ketana’s Dasakumara Charita, Yerrapragada’s Harivamsam followed. Many scientific[relevant? ] works, like Ganitasarasangrahamu by Pavuluri Mallana and Prakirnaganitamu by Eluganti Peddana, were written in the 12th century.

Baddena Bhupala (1220–1280 CE)[edit]

Sumati Shatakam, which is a neeti ('moral'), is one of the most famous Telugu Shatakams.[citation needed] Shatakam is composed of more than a 100 padyalu (poems). According to many literary critics[who?] Sumati Shatakam was composed by Baddena Bhupaludu (Telugu: బద్దెన భూపాల) (CE 1220–1280). He was also known as Bhadra Bhupala. He was a Chola prince and a vassal under the Kakatiya empress Rani Rudrama Devi, and a pupil of Tikkana.[citation needed] If we assume that the Sumati Shatakam was indeed written by Baddena, it would rank as one of the earliest Shatakams in Telugu along with the Vrushadhipa Satakam of Palkuriki Somanatha and the Sarveswara Satakam of Yathavakkula Annamayya.[original research?] The Sumatee Shatakam is also one of the earliest Telugu works to be translated into a European language, as C. P. Brown rendered it in English in the 1840s.

Palkuriki Somanatha: Important among his Telugu language writings are the Basava Purana, Panditaradhya charitra, Malamadevipuranamu and Somanatha Stava–in dwipada metre ('couplets'); Anubhavasara, Chennamallu Sisamalu, Vrishadhipa Shataka and Cheturvedasara–in verses; Basavodharana in verses and ragale metre (rhymed couplets in blank verse); and the Basavaragada.

Gona Budda Reddy: His Ranganatha Ramayanam was a pioneering work in the Telugu language on the theme of the Ramayana epic. Most scholars believe he wrote it between 1300 and 1310 A.D., possibly with help from his family. The work has become part of cultural life in Andhra Pradesh and is used in puppet shows.

In the Telugu literature Tikkana was given agraasana (top position) by many famous critics.

Paravastu Chinnayya Soori (1807–1861) is a well-known Telugu writer who dedicated his entire life to the progress and promotion of Telugu language and literature. Sri Chinnayasoori wrote the Bala Vyakaranam in a new style after doing extensive research on Telugu grammar. Other well-known writings by Chinnayasoori are Neethichandrika, Sootandhra Vyaakaranamu, Andhra Dhatumoola, and Neeti Sangrahamu.

Kandukuri Veeresalingam (1848–1919) is generally considered the father of modern Telugu literature.^[93] His novel Rajasekhara Charitamu was inspired by the Vicar of Wakefield. His work marked the beginning of a dynamic of socially conscious Telugu literature and its transition to the modern period, which is also part of the wider literary renaissance that took place in Indian culture during this period. Other prominent literary figures from this period are Gurajada Appa Rao, Viswanatha Satyanarayana, Gurram Jashuva, Rayaprolu Subba Rao, Devulapalli Krishnasastri and Srirangam Srinivasa Rao, popularly known as Mahakavi Sri Sri. Sri Sri was instrumental in popularising free verse in spoken Telugu (vaaduka bhasha), as opposed to the pure form of written Telugu used by several poets in his time. Devulapalli Krishnasastri is often referred to as the Shelley of Telugu literature because of his pioneering works in Telugu Romantic poetry.

Viswanatha Satyanarayana won India's national literary honour, the Jnanpith Award for his magnum opus Ramayana Kalpavrukshamu.^[94]C. Narayana Reddy won the Jnanpith Award in 1988 for his poetic work, Viswambara. Ravuri Bharadhwaja won the 3rd Jnanpith Award for Telugu literature in 2013 for Paakudu Raallu, a graphic account of life behind the screen in film industry.^[95]Kanyasulkam, the first social play in Telugu by Gurajada Appa Rao, was followed by the progressive movement, the free verse movement and the Digambara style of Telugu verse. Other modern Telugu novelists include Unnava Lakshminarayana (Maalapalli), Bulusu Venkateswarulu (Bharatiya Tatva Sastram), Kodavatiganti Kutumba Rao and Buchi Babu.

Telugu support on digital devices[edit]

Telugu input, display, and support were initially provided on the Microsoft Windows platform. Subsequently, various browsers, office applications, operating systems, and user interfaces were localized for Windows and Linux platforms by vendors and free and open-source software volunteers. Telugu-capable smart phones were also introduced by vendors in 2013.^[96]

On 15 February 2018, Apple devices were experiencing crashes of apps and device shutdowns when two particular characters from the Telugu language (specifically జ్ఞా) was rendered on the display. Reports show that this has affected iOS, macOS, tvOS and watchOS.^[97] On 20 February, Apple announced that the bug was fixed with the iOS 11.2.6 update.^[98]

See also[edit]

References[edit]

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36. ^Indian Epigraphy and South Indian Scripts, C. S. Murthy, 1952, Bulletins of the Madras Government Museum, New Series IV, General Section, Vol III, No. 4
37. ^ ^abBuhler, G. (1894), Epigraphica Indica, Vol.2
38. ^Keith E. Yandell Keith E. Yandell; John J. Paul (2013). Religion and Public Culture: Encounters and Identities in Modern South India. Taylor & Francis. p. 253. ISBN978-1-136-81808-0.
39. ^Carla M. Sinopoli 2001, p. 163.
40. ^Pollock, Sheldon (2003). The Language of the Gods in the World of Men: Sanskrit, Culture, and Power in Premodern India. University of California Press. p. 290. ISBN978-0-5202-4500-6.
41. ^ ^ab'Ancient Temples of Telangana_Book Pages 1 - 50 - Text Version AnyFlip'. anyflip.com.
42. ^Reporter, Staff (1 September 2015). 'Follow the path of Veturi in research, students urged' – via www.thehindu.com.
43. ^'Vision of Life: Classical Language status for Telugu'. 29 August 2010.
44. ^), Nārada (Maha Thera; Narasimhacharya, Ramanujapuram (1999). The Buddha-Dhamma, Or, the Life and Teachings of the Buddha. ISBN9788120605596.
45. ^Epigraphia Indica, Vol. 27 1947–48, pp. 1-4
46. ^'How Telugu won legal battle for 'classical' tag - Times of India'. The Times of India.
47. ^'Andhra Pradesh Eng Mag September 2016'. Issuu.
48. ^'R.Gandhi vs The Secretary To The Government'. indiankanoon.org.
49. ^'R Gandhi Vs the Secretary to the Government Ministry of Home Affairs New Delhi and Another - Citation 1189170 - Court Judgment LegalCrystal'. www.legalcrystal.com.
50. ^Period Of Old Telugu Times - 3 November 2015
51. ^D. C. Sircar. Indian Epigraphy, Volume 10 of Epigraphy, Palaeography, Numismatics Series. Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1996. p. 50.
52. ^ ^abcd'APonline – History and Culture-Languages'. aponline.gov.in. Archived from the original on 8 February 2012.Cite uses deprecated parameter deadurl= (help)
53. ^Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju (2003). The Dravidian Languages. Cambridge University Press. pp. 78–79. ISBN978-0-521-77111-5.
54. ^Rao, M. Malleswara (22 December 2012). 'When foreigners fell in love with Telugu language' – via www.thehindu.com.
55. ^Morris, Henry (2005). A Descriptive and Historical Account of the Godavery District in the Presidency of Madras. Asian Educational Services. p. 86. ISBN978-81-206-1973-9.
56. ^Rao, M. Malleswara (18 September 2005). 'Telugu declared official language'. The Hindu. Retrieved 16 July 2007.
57. ^'APonline – History and Culture – History-Post-Independence Era'. aponline.gov.in. Archived from the original on 20 December 2013.Cite uses deprecated parameter deadurl= (help)
58. ^'LANGUAGE SPOKEN AT HOME BY ABILITY TO SPEAK ENGLISH FOR THE POPULATION 5 YEARS AND OVER'. United States Census Bureau. Note: Excluding other languages with many speakers outside India such as Urdu
59. ^ ^abNagaraju, S. (1995). 'Emergence of Regional Identity and Beginning of Vernacular Literature: A Case Study of Telugu'. Social Scientist. 23 (10–12): 8–23. doi:10.2307/3517880. JSTOR3517880.
60. ^Sheldon Pollock (23 May 2006). The Language of the Gods in the World of Men. p. 421. ISBN9780520245006.
61. ^ ^abCynthia Talbot (2001). Precolonial India in Practice: Society, Region, and Identity in Medieval Andhra. pp. 50, 263. ISBN9780195136616.
62. ^Lisa Mitchell (2009). Language, Emotion, and Politics in South India: The Making of a Mother Tongue. p. 45. ISBN978-0253353016.
63. ^A. A. Abbasi, ed. (2001). Dimensions of Human Cultures in Central India: Professor S.K. Tiwari Felication Volume. p. 161. ISBN9788176251860.
64. ^Richard Salomon (10 December 1998). Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and Other Indo-European Languages. p. 100. ISBN9780195356663.
65. ^Talbot, Cynthia (20 September 2001). Precolonial India in Practice: Society, Region, and Identity in Medieval Andhra. ISBN9780198031239.
66. ^Talbot, Cynthia (20 September 2001). 'Precolonial India in Practice: Society, Region, and Identity in Medieval Andhra'. Oxford University Press – via Google Books.
67. ^Talbot, Cynthia (15 July 1988). 'Gifts to Gods and Brahmins: A Study of Religious Endowments in Medieval Andhra'. University of Wisconsin--Madison – via Google Books.
68. ^Cynthia Talbot (20 September 2001). Precolonial India in Practice: Society, Region, and Identity in Medieval Andhra. Oxford University Press. pp. 34–. ISBN978-0-19-803123-9.
69. ^Velcheru Narayana Rao; David Shulman (2002). Classical Telugu Poetry: An Anthology. Univ of California Press. pp. 6–. ISBN978-0-520-22598-5.
70. ^International Journal of Dravidian Linguistics: IJDL. Department of Linguistics, University of Kerala. 2004.
71. ^Ajay K. Rao (3 October 2014). Re-figuring the Ramayana as Theology: A History of Reception in Premodern India. Routledge. pp. 37–. ISBN978-1-134-07735-9.
72. ^S. Krishnaswami Aiyangar (1994). Evolution of Hindu Administrative Institutions in South India. Asian Educational Services. pp. 6–. ISBN978-81-206-0966-2.
73. ^Cynthia Talbot (2001). Precolonial India in Practice: Society, Region, and Identity in Medieval Andhra. Oxford University Press. pp. 195–. ISBN978-0-19-513661-6.
74. ^Sambaiah Gundimeda (14 October 2015). Dalit Politics in Contemporary India. Routledge. pp. 205–. ISBN978-1-317-38104-4.
75. ^Caffarel, Alice; Martin, J. R.; Matthiessen, Christian M. I. M. (2004). Language Typology: A Functional Perspective. John Benjamins Publishing. p. 434. ISBN978-1-58811-559-1. Retrieved 19 November 2016.
76. ^Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). 'Teluguic'. Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
77. ^'Telugu'. Ethnologue. Retrieved 30 March 2016.
78. ^'Census of India – DISTRIBUTION OF 10,000 PERSONS BY LANGUAGE'. Censusindia.gov.in. Retrieved 12 August 2012.
79. ^[1] Accessed 17 June 2017.
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81. ^ ^abcdKrishnamurti (1998), 'Telugu'. In Steever (ed.), The Dravidian Languages. Routledge. pp. 202–240, 260
82. ^ ^abcdeBhaskararao, Peri; Ray, Arpita (2017). 'Illustrations of the IPA - Telugu'. Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 47 (2): 231–241.
83. ^Wilkinson (1974:251)
84. ^A Grammar of the Telugu Language, p. 295, Charles Philip Brown, [2]
85. ^Charles Philip Brown (1857). A grammar of the Telugu language (2 ed.). Christian Knowledge Society's Press.
86. ^ ^abCorbett, Greville G. (1991). Gender. Cambridge [England]: Cambridge University Press. pp. 151–154. ISBN0521329396. OCLC21227561.
87. ^Albert Henry Arden (1873). A progressive grammar of the Telugu language. Society for promoting Christian knowledge. p. 57. Retrieved 3 August 2014.
88. ^Charles Philip Brown (1857). A grammar of the Telugu language (2 ed.). Christian Knowledge Society's Press. p. 39. Retrieved 3 August 2014.
89. ^Ramadasu, G (1980). 'Telugu bhasha charitra'. Telugu academyCite journal requires journal= (help)
90. ^te:దస్త్రం:Telugulipi evolution.jpg
91. ^ ^abBrown, Charles Philip (1857). A Grammar of the Telugu Language. London: W. H. Allen & Co. p. 5. ISBN978-81-206-0041-6.
92. ^United Nations Group of Experts on Geographical Names; United Nations Statistical Division (2007). Technical Reference Manual for the Standardization of Geographical Names. United Nations Publications. p. 110. ISBN978-92-1-161500-5.
93. ^Sarma, Challa Radhakrishna (1975). Landmarks in Telugu Literature. Lakshminarayana Granthamala. p. 30.
94. ^Datta, Amaresh; Lal, Mohan (1991). Encyclopaedia of Indian Literature. Sahitya Akademi. p. 3294.
95. ^George, K.M. (1992). Modern Indian Literature, an Anthology. Sahitya Akademi. p. 1121. ISBN978-81-7201-324-0.
96. ^'Samsung phones to support 9 Indian languages'. thehindubusinessline.com.
97. ^'People are trolling iPhone users with the 'killer symbol' that crashes their apps'. techcrunch.com.
98. ^'Apple releases fix for Telugu bug that crashes iPhones'. 20 February 2018. Retrieved 25 April 2018.Cite uses deprecated parameter deadurl= (help)

Bibliography[edit]

• Albert Henry Arden, A Progressive Grammar of the Telugu Language (1873).
• Charles Philip Brown, English–Telugu dictionary (1852; revised ed. 1903;
• The Linguistic Legacy of Indo-Guyanese The Linguistic Legacy of Indian-Guyanese
• Languages of Mauritius Languages of Mauritius - Mauritius Attractions
• Charles Philip Brown, A Grammar of the Telugu Language (1857)
• P. Percival, Telugu–English dictionary: with the Telugu words printed in the Roman as well as in the Telugu Character (1862, google books edition)
• Gwynn, J. P. L. (John Peter Lucius). A Telugu–English Dictionary Delhi; New York: Oxford University Press (1991; online edition).
• Uwe Gustafsson, An Adiwasi Oriya–Telugu–English dictionary, Central Institute of Indian Languages Dictionary Series, 6. Mysore: Central Institute of Indian Language (1989).
• Rao, Velcheru Narayana; Shulman, David (2002), Classical Telugu Poetry: An Anthology, University of California Press
• Callā Rādhākr̥ṣṇaśarma, Landmarks in Telugu Literature: A Short Survey of Telugu Literature (1975).
• Wilkinson, Robert W. (1974). 'Tense/lax vowel harmony in Telugu: The influence of derived contrast on rule application'. Linguistic Inquiry. 5 (2): 251–270

External links[edit]

• Telugu language at Curlie
• Telugu language at Encyclopædia Britannica

C (/siː/, as in the letter c) is a general-purpose, procedural computer programming language supporting structured programming, lexical variable scope, and recursion, while a static type system prevents unintended operations. By design, C provides constructs that map efficiently to typical machine instructions and has found lasting use in applications previously coded in assembly language. Such applications include operating systems and various application software for computers, from supercomputers to embedded systems.

C was originally developed at Bell Labs by Dennis Ritchie between 1972 and 1973 to make utilities running on Unix. Later, it was applied to re-implementing the kernel of the Unix operating system.^[6] During the 1980s, C gradually gained popularity. Nowadays, it is one of the most widely used programming languages,^[7][8] with C compilers from various vendors available for the majority of existing computer architectures and operating systems. C has been standardized by the ANSI since 1989 (see ANSI C) and by the International Organization for Standardization.

C is an imperativeprocedural language. It was designed to be compiled using a relatively straightforward compiler to provide low-level access to memory and language constructs that map efficiently to machine instructions, all with minimal runtime support. Despite its low-level capabilities, the language was designed to encourage cross-platform programming. A standards-compliant C program written with portability in mind can be compiled for a wide variety of computer platforms and operating systems with few changes to its source code. The language is available on various platforms, from embedded microcontrollers to supercomputers.

• 1Overview
• 2History
• 3Syntax
• 5Data types
• 7Libraries

Overview[edit]

Like most procedural languages in the ALGOL tradition, C has facilities for structured programming and allows lexical variable scope and recursion. Its static type system prevents unintended operations. In C, all executable code is contained within subroutines (also called 'functions', though not strictly in the sense of functional programming). Function parameters are always passed by value. Pass-by-reference is simulated in C by explicitly passing pointer values. C program source text is free-format, using the semicolon as a statement terminator and curly braces for grouping blocks of statements.

The C language also exhibits the following characteristics:

• There is a small, fixed number of keywords, including a full set of control flow primitives: if/else, for, do/while, while, and switch. User-defined names are not distinguished from keywords by any kind of sigil.
• There are a large number of arithmetic, bitwise and logic operators: +, +=, ++, &, , etc.
• More than one assignment may be performed in a single statement.
• Function return values can be ignored when not needed.
• Typing is static, but weakly enforced; all data has a type, but implicit conversions are possible.
• Declarationsyntax mimics usage context. C has no 'define' keyword; instead, a statement beginning with the name of a type is taken as a declaration. There is no 'function' keyword; instead, a function is indicated by the parentheses of an argument list.
• User-defined (typedef) and compound types are possible.
  • Heterogeneous aggregate data types (struct) allow related data elements to be accessed and assigned as a unit.
  • Union is a structure with overlapping members; only the last member stored is valid.
  • Array indexing is a secondary notation, defined in terms of pointer arithmetic. Unlike structs, arrays are not first-class objects: they cannot be assigned or compared using single built-in operators. There is no 'array' keyword in use or definition; instead, square brackets indicate arrays syntactically, for example month[11].
  • Enumerated types are possible with the enum keyword. They are freely interconvertible with integers.
  • Strings are not a distinct data type, but are conventionally implemented as null-terminated character arrays.
• Low-level access to computer memory is possible by converting machine addresses to typed pointers.
• Procedures (subroutines not returning values) are a special case of function, with an untyped return type void.
• Functions may not be defined within the lexical scope of other functions.
• Function and data pointers permit ad hocrun-time polymorphism.
• A preprocessor performs macro definition, source code file inclusion, and conditional compilation.
• There is a basic form of modularity: files can be compiled separately and linked together, with control over which functions and data objects are visible to other files via static and extern attributes.
• Complex functionality such as I/O, string manipulation, and mathematical functions are consistently delegated to library routines.

While C does not include certain features found in other languages (such as object orientation and garbage collection), these can be implemented or emulated, often through the use of external libraries (e.g., the GLib Object System or the Boehm garbage collector).

Relations to other languages[edit]

Many later languages have borrowed directly or indirectly from C, including C++, C#, Unix's C shell, D, Go, Java, JavaScript, Limbo, LPC, Objective-C, Perl, PHP, Python, Rust, Swift, Verilog and SystemVerilog (hardware description languages).^[5] These languages have drawn many of their control structures and other basic features from C. Most of them (Python being a dramatic exception) also express highly similar syntax to C, and they tend to combine the recognizable expression and statement syntax of C with underlying type systems, data models, and semantics that can be radically different.

History[edit]

Early developments[edit]

The origin of C is closely tied to the development of the Unix operating system, originally implemented in assembly language on a PDP-7 by Dennis Ritchie and Ken Thompson, incorporating several ideas from colleagues. Eventually, they decided to port the operating system to a PDP-11. The original PDP-11 version of Unix was also developed in assembly language.^[10]

Thompson desired a programming language to make utilities for the new platform. At first, he tried to make a Fortran compiler, but soon gave up the idea. Instead, he created a cut-down version of the recently developed BCPLsystems programming language. The official description of BCPL was not available at the time,^[11] and Thompson modified the syntax to be less wordy, producing the similar but somewhat simpler B.^[10] However, few utilities were ultimately written in B because it was too slow, and B could not take advantage of PDP-11 features such as byte addressability.

In 1972, Ritchie started to improve B, which resulted in creating a new language C.^[12] The C compiler and some utilities made with it were included in Version 2 Unix.^[13]

At Version 4 Unix released at Nov. 1973, the Unixkernel was extensively re-implemented by C.^[10] By this time, the C language had acquired some powerful features such as struct types.

Unix was one of the first operating system kernels implemented in a language other than assembly. Earlier instances include the Multics system (which was written in PL/I) and Master Control Program (MCP) for the Burroughs B5000 (which was written in ALGOL) in 1961. In around 1977, Ritchie and Stephen C. Johnson made further changes to the language to facilitate portability of the Unix operating system. Johnson's Portable C Compiler served as the basis for several implementations of C on new platforms.^[12]

K&R C[edit]

In 1978, Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie published the first edition of The C Programming Language.^[1] This book, known to C programmers as K&R, served for many years as an informal specification of the language. The version of C that it describes is commonly referred to as 'K&R C'. The second edition of the book^[14] covers the later ANSI C standard, described below.

K&R introduced several language features:

• Standard I/O library
• long int data type
• unsigned int data type
• Compound assignment operators of the form =op (such as =-) were changed to the form op= (that is, -=) to remove the semantic ambiguity created by constructs such as i=-10, which had been interpreted as i =- 10 (decrement i by 10) instead of the possibly intended i = -10 (let i be -10).

Even after the publication of the 1989 ANSI standard, for many years K&R C was still considered the 'lowest common denominator' to which C programmers restricted themselves when maximum portability was desired, since many older compilers were still in use, and because carefully written K&R C code can be legal Standard C as well.

In early versions of C, only functions that return types other than int must be declared if used before the function definition; functions used without prior declaration were presumed to return type int.

For example:

The int type specifiers which are commented out could be omitted in K&R C, but are required in later standards.

Since K&R function declarations did not include any information about function arguments, function parameter type checks were not performed, although some compilers would issue a warning message if a local function was called with the wrong number of arguments, or if multiple calls to an external function used different numbers or types of arguments. Separate tools such as Unix's lint utility were developed that (among other things) could check for consistency of function use across multiple source files.

In the years following the publication of K&R C, several features were added to the language, supported by compilers from AT&T (in particular PCC^[15]) and some other vendors. These included:

• void functions (i.e., functions with no return value)
• functions returning struct or union types (rather than pointers)
• assignment for struct data types

The large number of extensions and lack of agreement on a standard library, together with the language popularity and the fact that not even the Unix compilers precisely implemented the K&R specification, led to the necessity of standardization.

ANSI C and ISO C[edit]

During the late 1970s and 1980s, versions of C were implemented for a wide variety of mainframe computers, minicomputers, and microcomputers, including the IBM PC, as its popularity began to increase significantly.

In 1983, the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) formed a committee, X3J11, to establish a standard specification of C. X3J11 based the C standard on the Unix implementation; however, the non-portable portion of the Unix C library was handed off to the IEEEworking group 1003 to become the basis for the 1988 POSIX standard. In 1989, the C standard was ratified as ANSI X3.159-1989 'Programming Language C'. This version of the language is often referred to as ANSI C, Standard C, or sometimes C89.

In 1990, the ANSI C standard (with formatting changes) was adopted by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) as ISO/IEC 9899:1990, which is sometimes called C90. Therefore, the terms 'C89' and 'C90' refer to the same programming language.

ANSI, like other national standards bodies, no longer develops the C standard independently, but defers to the international C standard, maintained by the working group ISO/IEC JTC1/SC22/WG14. National adoption of an update to the international standard typically occurs within a year of ISO publication.

One of the aims of the C standardization process was to produce a superset of K&R C, incorporating many of the subsequently introduced unofficial features. The standards committee also included several additional features such as function prototypes (borrowed from C++), void pointers, support for international character sets and locales, and preprocessor enhancements. Although the syntax for parameter declarations was augmented to include the style used in C++, the K&R interface continued to be permitted, for compatibility with existing source code.

C89 is supported by current C compilers, and most C code being written today is based on it. Any program written only in Standard C and without any hardware-dependent assumptions will run correctly on any platform with a conforming C implementation, within its resource limits. Without such precautions, programs may compile only on a certain platform or with a particular compiler, due, for example, to the use of non-standard libraries, such as GUI libraries, or to a reliance on compiler- or platform-specific attributes such as the exact size of data types and byte endianness.

In cases where code must be compilable by either standard-conforming or K&R C-based compilers, the __STDC__ macro can be used to split the code into Standard and K&R sections to prevent the use on a K&R C-based compiler of features available only in Standard C.

After the ANSI/ISO standardization process, the C language specification remained relatively static for several years. In 1995, Normative Amendment 1 to the 1990 C standard (ISO/IEC 9899/AMD1:1995, known informally as C95) was published, to correct some details and to add more extensive support for international character sets.^[16]

C99[edit]

The C standard was further revised in the late 1990s, leading to the publication of ISO/IEC 9899:1999 in 1999, which is commonly referred to as 'C99'. It has since been amended three times by Technical Corrigenda.^[17]

C99 introduced several new features, including inline functions, several new data types (including long long int and a complex type to represent complex numbers), variable-length arrays and flexible array members, improved support for IEEE 754 floating point, support for variadic macros (macros of variable arity), and support for one-line comments beginning with //, as in BCPL or C++. Many of these had already been implemented as extensions in several C compilers.

C99 is for the most part backward compatible with C90, but is stricter in some ways; in particular, a declaration that lacks a type specifier no longer has int implicitly assumed. A standard macro __STDC_VERSION__ is defined with value 199901L to indicate that C99 support is available. GCC, Solaris Studio, and other C compilers now support many or all of the new features of C99. The C compiler in Microsoft Visual C++, however, implements the C89 standard and those parts of C99 that are required for compatibility with C++11.^[18]

C11[edit]

In 2007, work began on another revision of the C standard, informally called 'C1X' until its official publication on 2011-12-08. The C standards committee adopted guidelines to limit the adoption of new features that had not been tested by existing implementations.

The C11 standard adds numerous new features to C and the library, including type generic macros, anonymous structures, improved Unicode support, atomic operations, multi-threading, and bounds-checked functions. It also makes some portions of the existing C99 library optional, and improves compatibility with C++. The standard macro __STDC_VERSION__ is defined as 201112L to indicate that C11 support is available.

C18[edit]

Published in June 2018, C18 is the current standard for the C programming language. It introduces no new language features, only technical corrections and clarifications to defects in C11. The standard macro __STDC_VERSION__ is defined as 201710L.

Embedded C[edit]

Historically, embedded C programming requires nonstandard extensions to the C language in order to support exotic features such as fixed-point arithmetic, multiple distinct memory banks, and basic I/O operations.

In 2008, the C Standards Committee published a technical report extending the C language^[19] to address these issues by providing a common standard for all implementations to adhere to. It includes a number of features not available in normal C, such as fixed-point arithmetic, named address spaces, and basic I/O hardware addressing.

Syntax[edit]

C has a formal grammar specified by the C standard.^[20] Line endings are generally not significant in C; however, line boundaries do have significance during the preprocessing phase. Comments may appear either between the delimiters /* and */, or (since C99) following // until the end of the line. Comments delimited by /* and */ do not nest, and these sequences of characters are not interpreted as comment delimiters if they appear inside string or character literals.^[21]

C source files contain declarations and function definitions. Function definitions, in turn, contain declarations and statements. Declarations either define new types using keywords such as struct, union, and enum, or assign types to and perhaps reserve storage for new variables, usually by writing the type followed by the variable name. Keywords such as char and int specify built-in types. Sections of code are enclosed in braces ({ and }, sometimes called 'curly brackets') to limit the scope of declarations and to act as a single statement for control structures.

As an imperative language, C uses statements to specify actions. The most common statement is an expression statement, consisting of an expression to be evaluated, followed by a semicolon; as a side effect of the evaluation, functions may be called and variables may be assigned new values. To modify the normal sequential execution of statements, C provides several control-flow statements identified by reserved keywords. Structured programming is supported by if(-else) conditional execution and by do-while, while, and for iterative execution (looping). The for statement has separate initialization, testing, and reinitialization expressions, any or all of which can be omitted. break and continue can be used to leave the innermost enclosing loop statement or skip to its reinitialization. There is also a non-structured goto statement which branches directly to the designated label within the function. switch selects a case to be executed based on the value of an integer expression.

Expressions can use a variety of built-in operators and may contain function calls. The order in which arguments to functions and operands to most operators are evaluated is unspecified. The evaluations may even be interleaved. However, all side effects (including storage to variables) will occur before the next 'sequence point'; sequence points include the end of each expression statement, and the entry to and return from each function call. Sequence points also occur during evaluation of expressions containing certain operators (&&, , ?: and the comma operator). This permits a high degree of object code optimization by the compiler, but requires C programmers to take more care to obtain reliable results than is needed for other programming languages.

Kernighan and Ritchie say in the Introduction of The C Programming Language: 'C, like any other language, has its blemishes. Some of the operators have the wrong precedence; some parts of the syntax could be better.'^[22] The C standard did not attempt to correct many of these blemishes, because of the impact of such changes on already existing software.

Character set[edit]

The basic C source character set includes the following characters:

• Lowercase and uppercase letters of ISO Basic Latin Alphabet: a–zA–Z
• Decimal digits: 0–9
• Graphic characters: ! ' # % & ' ( ) * + , - . / : ; < = > ? [ ] ^ _ { } ~
• Whitespace characters: space, horizontal tab, vertical tab, form feed, newline

Newline indicates the end of a text line; it need not correspond to an actual single character, although for convenience C treats it as one.

Additional multi-byte encoded characters may be used in string literals, but they are not entirely portable. The latest C standard (C11) allows multi-national Unicode characters to be embedded portably within C source text by using uXXXX or UXXXXXXXX encoding (where the X denotes a hexadecimal character), although this feature is not yet widely implemented.

The basic C execution character set contains the same characters, along with representations for alert, backspace, and carriage return. Run-time support for extended character sets has increased with each revision of the C standard.

Reserved words[edit]

C89 has 32 reserved words, also known as keywords, which are the words that cannot be used for any purposes other than those for which they are predefined:

C99 reserved five more words:

C11 reserved seven more words:^[23]

Most of the recently reserved words begin with an underscore followed by a capital letter, because identifiers of that form were previously reserved by the C standard for use only by implementations. Since existing program source code should not have been using these identifiers, it would not be affected when C implementations started supporting these extensions to the programming language. Some standard headers do define more convenient synonyms for underscored identifiers. The language previously included a reserved word called entry, but this was seldom implemented, and has now been removed as a reserved word.^[24]

Operators[edit]

C supports a rich set of operators, which are symbols used within an expression to specify the manipulations to be performed while evaluating that expression. C has operators for:

• arithmetic: +, -, *, /, %
• assignment: =
• augmented assignment: +=, -=, *=, /=, %=, &=, =, ^=, <<=, >>=
• bitwise logic: ~, &, , ^
• bitwise shifts: <<, >>
• boolean logic: !, &&,
• conditional evaluation: ? :
• equality testing: , !=
• calling functions: ( )
• increment and decrement: ++, --
• member selection: ., ->
• object size: sizeof
• order relations: <, <=, >, >=
• reference and dereference: &, *, [ ]
• sequencing: ,
• subexpression grouping: ( )
• type conversion: (typename)

C uses the operator = (used in mathematics to express equality) to indicate assignment, following the precedent of Fortran and PL/I, but unlike ALGOL and its derivatives. C uses the operator to test for equality. The similarity between these two operators (assignment and equality) may result in the accidental use of one in place of the other, and in many cases, the mistake does not produce an error message (although some compilers produce warnings). For example, the conditional expression if(ab+1) might mistakenly be written as if(a=b+1), which will be evaluated as true if a is not zero after the assignment.^[25]

The C operator precedence is not always intuitive. For example, the operator binds more tightly than (is executed prior to) the operators & (bitwise AND) and (bitwise OR) in expressions such as x & 1 0, which must be written as (x & 1) 0 if that is the coder's intent.^[26]

'Hello, world' example[edit]

The 'hello, world' example, which appeared in the first edition of K&R, has become the model for an introductory program in most programming textbooks, regardless of programming language. The program prints 'hello, world' to the standard output, which is usually a terminal or screen display.

The original version was:^[27]

A standard-conforming 'hello, world' program is:^[a]

The first line of the program contains a preprocessing directive, indicated by #include. This causes the compiler to replace that line with the entire text of the stdio.h standard header, which contains declarations for standard input and output functions such as printf and scanf. The angle brackets surrounding stdio.h indicate that stdio.h is located using a search strategy that prefers headers provided with the compiler to other headers having the same name, as opposed to double quotes which typically include local or project-specific header files.

The next line indicates that a function named main is being defined. The main function serves a special purpose in C programs; the run-time environment calls the main function to begin program execution. The type specifier int indicates that the value that is returned to the invoker (in this case the run-time environment) as a result of evaluating the main function, is an integer. The keyword void as a parameter list indicates that this function takes no arguments.^[b]

The opening curly brace indicates the beginning of the definition of the main function.

The next line calls (diverts execution to) a function named printf, which in this case is supplied from a system library. In this call, the printf function is passed (provided with) a single argument, the address of the first character in the string literal'hello, worldn'. The string literal is an unnamed array with elements of type char, set up automatically by the compiler with a final 0-valued character to mark the end of the array (printf needs to know this). The n is an escape sequence that C translates to a newline character, which on output signifies the end of the current line. The return value of the printf function is of type int, but it is silently discarded since it is not used. (A more careful program might test the return value to determine whether or not the printf function succeeded.) The semicolon ; terminates the statement.

The closing curly brace indicates the end of the code for the main function. According to the C99 specification and newer, the main function, unlike any other function, will implicitly return a value of 0 upon reaching the } that terminates the function. (Formerly an explicit return 0; statement was required.) This is interpreted by the run-time system as an exit code indicating successful execution.^[28]

Data types[edit]

The type system in C is static and weakly typed, which makes it similar to the type system of ALGOL descendants such as Pascal.^[29] There are built-in types for integers of various sizes, both signed and unsigned, floating-point numbers, and enumerated types (enum). Integer type char is often used for single-byte characters. C99 added a boolean datatype. There are also derived types including arrays, pointers, records (struct), and unions (union).

C is often used in low-level systems programming where escapes from the type system may be necessary. The compiler attempts to ensure type correctness of most expressions, but the programmer can override the checks in various ways, either by using a type cast to explicitly convert a value from one type to another, or by using pointers or unions to reinterpret the underlying bits of a data object in some other way.

Some find C's declaration syntax unintuitive, particularly for function pointers. (Ritchie's idea was to declare identifiers in contexts resembling their use: 'declaration reflects use'.)^[30]

C's usual arithmetic conversions allow for efficient code to be generated, but can sometimes produce unexpected results. For example, a comparison of signed and unsigned integers of equal width requires a conversion of the signed value to unsigned. This can generate unexpected results if the signed value is negative.

Pointers[edit]

C supports the use of pointers, a type of reference that records the address or location of an object or function in memory. Pointers can be dereferenced to access data stored at the address pointed to, or to invoke a pointed-to function. Pointers can be manipulated using assignment or pointer arithmetic. The run-time representation of a pointer value is typically a raw memory address (perhaps augmented by an offset-within-word field), but since a pointer's type includes the type of the thing pointed to, expressions including pointers can be type-checked at compile time. Pointer arithmetic is automatically scaled by the size of the pointed-to data type. Pointers are used for many purposes in C. Text strings are commonly manipulated using pointers into arrays of characters. Dynamic memory allocation is performed using pointers. Many data types, such as trees, are commonly implemented as dynamically allocated struct objects linked together using pointers. Pointers to functions are useful for passing functions as arguments to higher-order functions (such as qsort or bsearch) or as callbacks to be invoked by event handlers.^[28]

A null pointer value explicitly points to no valid location. Dereferencing a null pointer value is undefined, often resulting in a segmentation fault. Null pointer values are useful for indicating special cases such as no 'next' pointer in the final node of a linked list, or as an error indication from functions returning pointers. In appropriate contexts in source code, such as for assigning to a pointer variable, a null pointer constant can be written as 0, with or without explicit casting to a pointer type, or as the NULL macro defined by several standard headers. In conditional contexts, null pointer values evaluate to false, while all other pointer values evaluate to true.

Void pointers (void *) point to objects of unspecified type, and can therefore be used as 'generic' data pointers. Since the size and type of the pointed-to object is not known, void pointers cannot be dereferenced, nor is pointer arithmetic on them allowed, although they can easily be (and in many contexts implicitly are) converted to and from any other object pointer type.^[28]

Careless use of pointers is potentially dangerous. Because they are typically unchecked, a pointer variable can be made to point to any arbitrary location, which can cause undesirable effects. Although properly used pointers point to safe places, they can be made to point to unsafe places by using invalid pointer arithmetic; the objects they point to may continue to be used after deallocation (dangling pointers); they may be used without having been initialized (wild pointers); or they may be directly assigned an unsafe value using a cast, union, or through another corrupt pointer. In general, C is permissive in allowing manipulation of and conversion between pointer types, although compilers typically provide options for various levels of checking. Some other programming languages address these problems by using more restrictive reference types.

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Arrays[edit]

Array types in C are traditionally of a fixed, static size specified at compile time. (The more recent C99 standard also allows a form of variable-length arrays.) However, it is also possible to allocate a block of memory (of arbitrary size) at run-time, using the standard library's malloc function, and treat it as an array. C's unification of arrays and pointers means that declared arrays and these dynamically allocated simulated arrays are virtually interchangeable.

Since arrays are always accessed (in effect) via pointers, array accesses are typically not checked against the underlying array size, although some compilers may provide bounds checking as an option.^[31][32] Array bounds violations are therefore possible and rather common in carelessly written code, and can lead to various repercussions, including illegal memory accesses, corruption of data, buffer overruns, and run-time exceptions. If bounds checking is desired, it must be done manually.

C does not have a special provision for declaring multi-dimensional arrays, but rather relies on recursion within the type system to declare arrays of arrays, which effectively accomplishes the same thing. The index values of the resulting 'multi-dimensional array' can be thought of as increasing in row-major order.

Multi-dimensional arrays are commonly used in numerical algorithms (mainly from applied linear algebra) to store matrices. The structure of the C array is well suited to this particular task. However, since arrays are passed merely as pointers, the bounds of the array must be known fixed values or else explicitly passed to any subroutine that requires them, and dynamically sized arrays of arrays cannot be accessed using double indexing. (A workaround for this is to allocate the array with an additional 'row vector' of pointers to the columns.)

C99 introduced 'variable-length arrays' which address some, but not all, of the issues with ordinary C arrays.

Array–pointer interchangeability[edit]

The subscript notation x[i] (where x designates a pointer) is syntactic sugar for *(x+i).^[33] Taking advantage of the compiler's knowledge of the pointer type, the address that x + i points to is not the base address (pointed to by x) incremented by i bytes, but rather is defined to be the base address incremented by i multiplied by the size of an element that x points to. Thus, x[i] designates the i+1th element of the array.

Furthermore, in most expression contexts (a notable exception is as operand of sizeof), the name of an array is automatically converted to a pointer to the array's first element. This implies that an array is never copied as a whole when named as an argument to a function, but rather only the address of its first element is passed. Therefore, although function calls in C use pass-by-value semantics, arrays are in effect passed by reference.

The size of an element can be determined by applying the operator sizeof to any dereferenced element of x, as in n = sizeof *x or n = sizeof x[0], and the number of elements in a declared array A can be determined as sizeof A / sizeof A[0]. The latter only applies to array names: variables declared with subscripts (int A[20]). Due to the semantics of C, it is not possible to determine the entire size of arrays through pointers to arrays or those created by dynamic allocation (malloc); code such as sizeof arr / sizeof arr[0] (where arr designates a pointer) will not work since the compiler assumes the size of the pointer itself is being requested.^[34][35] Since array name arguments to sizeof are not converted to pointers, they do not exhibit such ambiguity. However, arrays created by dynamic allocation are accessed by pointers rather than true array variables, so they suffer from the same sizeof issues as array pointers.

Thus, despite this apparent equivalence between array and pointer variables, there is still a distinction to be made between them. Even though the name of an array is, in most expression contexts, converted into a pointer (to its first element), this pointer does not itself occupy any storage; the array name is not an l-value, and its address is a constant, unlike a pointer variable. Consequently, what an array 'points to' cannot be changed, and it is impossible to assign a new address to an array name. Array contents may be copied, however, by using the memcpy function, or by accessing the individual elements.

Memory management[edit]

One of the most important functions of a programming language is to provide facilities for managing memory and the objects that are stored in memory. C provides three distinct ways to allocate memory for objects:^[28]

• Static memory allocation: space for the object is provided in the binary at compile-time; these objects have an extent (or lifetime) as long as the binary which contains them is loaded into memory.
• Automatic memory allocation: temporary objects can be stored on the stack, and this space is automatically freed and reusable after the block in which they are declared is exited.
• Dynamic memory allocation: blocks of memory of arbitrary size can be requested at run-time using library functions such as malloc from a region of memory called the heap; these blocks persist until subsequently freed for reuse by calling the library function realloc or free

These three approaches are appropriate in different situations and have various trade-offs. For example, static memory allocation has little allocation overhead, automatic allocation may involve slightly more overhead, and dynamic memory allocation can potentially have a great deal of overhead for both allocation and deallocation. The persistent nature of static objects is useful for maintaining state information across function calls, automatic allocation is easy to use but stack space is typically much more limited and transient than either static memory or heap space, and dynamic memory allocation allows convenient allocation of objects whose size is known only at run-time. Most C programs make extensive use of all three.

Where possible, automatic or static allocation is usually simplest because the storage is managed by the compiler, freeing the programmer of the potentially error-prone chore of manually allocating and releasing storage. However, many data structures can change in size at runtime, and since static allocations (and automatic allocations before C99) must have a fixed size at compile-time, there are many situations in which dynamic allocation is necessary.^[28] Prior to the C99 standard, variable-sized arrays were a common example of this. (See the article on malloc for an example of dynamically allocated arrays.) Unlike automatic allocation, which can fail at run time with uncontrolled consequences, the dynamic allocation functions return an indication (in the form of a null pointer value) when the required storage cannot be allocated. (Static allocation that is too large is usually detected by the linker or loader, before the program can even begin execution.)

Unless otherwise specified, static objects contain zero or null pointer values upon program startup. Automatically and dynamically allocated objects are initialized only if an initial value is explicitly specified; otherwise they initially have indeterminate values (typically, whatever bit pattern happens to be present in the storage, which might not even represent a valid value for that type). If the program attempts to access an uninitialized value, the results are undefined. Many modern compilers try to detect and warn about this problem, but both false positives and false negatives can occur.

Another issue is that heap memory allocation has to be synchronized with its actual usage in any program in order for it to be reused as much as possible. For example, if the only pointer to a heap memory allocation goes out of scope or has its value overwritten before free() is called, then that memory cannot be recovered for later reuse and is essentially lost to the program, a phenomenon known as a memory leak. Conversely, it is possible for memory to be freed but continue to be referenced, leading to unpredictable results. Typically, the symptoms will appear in a portion of the program far removed from the actual error, making it difficult to track down the problem. (Such issues are ameliorated in languages with automatic garbage collection.)

Libraries[edit]

The C programming language uses libraries as its primary method of extension. In C, a library is a set of functions contained within a single 'archive' file. Each library typically has a header file, which contains the prototypes of the functions contained within the library that may be used by a program, and declarations of special data types and macro symbols used with these functions. In order for a program to use a library, it must include the library's header file, and the library must be linked with the program, which in many cases requires compiler flags (e.g., -lm, shorthand for 'link the math library').^[28]

The most common C library is the C standard library, which is specified by the ISO and ANSI C standards and comes with every C implementation (implementations which target limited environments such as embedded systems may provide only a subset of the standard library). This library supports stream input and output, memory allocation, mathematics, character strings, and time values. Several separate standard headers (for example, stdio.h) specify the interfaces for these and other standard library facilities.

Another common set of C library functions are those used by applications specifically targeted for Unix and Unix-like systems, especially functions which provide an interface to the kernel. These functions are detailed in various standards such as POSIX and the Single UNIX Specification.

Since many programs have been written in C, there are a wide variety of other libraries available. Libraries are often written in C because C compilers generate efficient object code; programmers then create interfaces to the library so that the routines can be used from higher-level languages like Java, Perl, and Python.^[28]

File handling and streams[edit]

File input and output (I/O) is not part of the C language itself but instead is handled by libraries (such as the C standard library) and their associated header files (e.g. stdio.h). File handling is generally implemented through high-level I/O which works through streams. A stream is from this perspective a data flow that is independent of devices, while a file is a concrete device. The high level I/O is done through the association of a stream to a file. In the C standard library, a buffer (a memory area or queue) is temporarily used to store data before it's sent to the final destination. This reduces the time spent waiting for slower devices, for example a hard drive or solid state drive. Low-level I/O functions are not part of the standard C library but are generally part of 'bare metal' programming (programming that's independent of any operating system such as most but not all embedded programming). With few exceptions, implementations include low-level I/O.

Language tools[edit]

A number of tools have been developed to help C programmers find and fix statements with undefined behavior or possibly erroneous expressions, with greater rigor than that provided by the compiler. The tool lint was the first such, leading to many others.

Automated source code checking and auditing are beneficial in any language, and for C many such tools exist, such as Lint. A common practice is to use Lint to detect questionable code when a program is first written. Once a program passes Lint, it is then compiled using the C compiler. Also, many compilers can optionally warn about syntactically valid constructs that are likely to actually be errors. MISRA C is a proprietary set of guidelines to avoid such questionable code, developed for embedded systems.^[36]

There are also compilers, libraries, and operating system level mechanisms for performing actions that are not a standard part of C, such as bounds checking for arrays, detection of buffer overflow, serialization, dynamic memory tracking, and automatic garbage collection.

Tools such as Purify or Valgrind and linking with libraries containing special versions of the memory allocation functions can help uncover runtime errors in memory usage.

Uses[edit]

C is widely used for systems programming in implementing operating systems and embedded system applications,^[38] because C code, when written for portability, can be used for most purposes, yet when needed, system-specific code can be used to access specific hardware addresses and to perform type punning to match externally imposed interface requirements, with a low run-time demand on system resources.

C can also be used for website programming using CGI as a 'gateway' for information between the Web application, the server, and the browser.^[39] C is often chosen over interpreted languages because of its speed, stability, and near-universal availability.^[40]

One consequence of C's wide availability and efficiency is that compilers, libraries and interpreters of other programming languages are often implemented in C. The reference implementations of Python, Perl and PHP, for example, are all written in C.

Because the layer of abstraction is thin and the overhead is low, C enables programmers to create efficient implementations of algorithms and data structures, useful for computationally intense programs. For example, the GNU Multiple Precision Arithmetic Library, the GNU Scientific Library, Mathematica, and MATLAB are completely or partially written in C.

C is sometimes used as an intermediate language by implementations of other languages. This approach may be used for portability or convenience; by using C as an intermediate language, additional machine-specific code generators are not necessary. C has some features, such as line-number preprocessor directives and optional superfluous commas at the end of initializer lists, that support compilation of generated code. However, some of C's shortcomings have prompted the development of other C-based languages specifically designed for use as intermediate languages, such as C--.

C has also been widely used to implement end-user applications. However, such applications can also be written in newer, higher-level languages.

Related languages[edit]

C has both directly and indirectly influenced many later languages such as C#, D, Go, Java, JavaScript, Limbo, LPC, Perl, PHP, Python, and Unix's C shell.^[41] The most pervasive influence has been syntactical, all of the languages mentioned combine the statement and (more or less recognizably) expression syntax of C with type systems, data models and/or large-scale program structures that differ from those of C, sometimes radically.

Several C or near-C interpreters exist, including Ch and CINT, which can also be used for scripting.

When object-oriented languages became popular, C++ and Objective-C were two different extensions of C that provided object-oriented capabilities. Both languages were originally implemented as source-to-source compilers; source code was translated into C, and then compiled with a C compiler.^[42]

The C++ programming language was devised by Bjarne Stroustrup as an approach to providing object-oriented functionality with a C-like syntax.^[43] C++ adds greater typing strength, scoping, and other tools useful in object-oriented programming, and permits generic programming via templates. Nearly a superset of C, C++ now supports most of C, with a few exceptions.

Objective-C was originally a very 'thin' layer on top of C, and remains a strict superset of C that permits object-oriented programming using a hybrid dynamic/static typing paradigm. Objective-C derives its syntax from both C and Smalltalk: syntax that involves preprocessing, expressions, function declarations, and function calls is inherited from C, while the syntax for object-oriented features was originally taken from Smalltalk.

In addition to C++ and Objective-C, Ch, Cilk and Unified Parallel C are nearly supersets of C.

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

1. ^The original example code will compile on most modern compilers that are not in strict standard compliance mode, but it does not fully conform to the requirements of either C89 or C99. In fact, C99 requires that a diagnostic message be produced.
2. ^The main function actually has two arguments, int argc and char *argv[], respectively, which can be used to handle command line arguments. The ISO C standard (section 5.1.2.2.1) requires both forms of main to be supported, which is special treatment not afforded to any other function.

References[edit]

1. ^ ^abcdKernighan, Brian W.; Ritchie, Dennis M. (February 1978). The C Programming Language (1st ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN978-0-13-110163-0.
2. ^Ritchie (1993): 'Thompson had made a brief attempt to produce a system coded in an early version of C—before structures—in 1972, but gave up the effort.'
3. ^Ritchie (1993): 'The scheme of type composition adopted by C owes considerable debt to Algol 68, although it did not, perhaps, emerge in a form that Algol's adherents would approve of.'
4. ^'Introduction'. Ring 1.10 documentation. Ring (programming language). Retrieved 27 June 2019.
5. ^ ^ab'Verilog HDL (and C)'(PDF). The Research School of Computer Science at the Australian National University. 2010-06-03. Archived from the original(PDF) on 2013-11-06. Retrieved 2013-08-19. 1980s: ; Verilog first introduced ; Verilog inspired by the C programming language
6. ^Ritchie (1993)
7. ^'Programming Language Popularity'. 2009. Archived from the original on 13 December 2007. Retrieved 16 January 2009.
8. ^'TIOBE Programming Community Index'. 2009. Retrieved 6 May 2009.
9. ^'History of C - cppreference.com'. en.cppreference.com.
10. ^ ^abcRitchie, Dennis M. (March 1993). 'The Development of the C Language'. ACM SIGPLAN Notices. 28 (3): 201–208. doi:10.1145/155360.155580.
11. ^Ritchie, Dennis. 'BCPL to B to C'.
12. ^ ^abJohnson, S. C.; Ritchie, D. M. (1978). 'Portability of C Programs and the UNIX System'. Bell System Tech. J. 57 (6): 2021–2048. CiteSeerX10.1.1.138.35. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1978.tb02141.x. (Note: this reference is an OCR scan of the original, and contains an OCR glitch rendering 'IBM 370' as 'IBM 310'.)
13. ^McIlroy, M. D. (1987). A Research Unix reader: annotated excerpts from the Programmer's Manual, 1971–1986(PDF) (Technical report). CSTR. Bell Labs. p. 10. 139.
14. ^ ^abKernighan, Brian W.; Ritchie, Dennis M. (March 1988). The C Programming Language (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN978-0-13-110362-7.
15. ^Stroustrup, Bjarne (2002). Sibling rivalry: C and C++(PDF) (Report). AT&T Labs.
16. ^C Integrity. International Organization for Standardization. 1995-03-30.
17. ^'JTC1/SC22/WG14 – C'. Home page. ISO/IEC. Retrieved 2 June 2011.
18. ^Andrew Binstock (October 12, 2011). 'Interview with Herb Sutter'. Dr. Dobbs. Retrieved September 7, 2013.
19. ^'TR 18037: Embedded C'(PDF). ISO / IEC. Retrieved 26 July 2011.
20. ^Harbison, Samuel P.; Steele, Guy L. (2002). C: A Reference Manual (5th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN978-0-13-089592-9. Contains a BNF grammar for C.
21. ^Kernighan, Brian W.; Ritchie, Dennis M. (1996). The C Programming Language (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. p. 192. ISBN7 302 02412 X.
22. ^Page 3 of the original K&R^[1]
23. ^ISO/IEC 9899:201x (ISO C11) Committee Draft
24. ^Kernighan, Brian W.; Ritchie, Dennis M. (1996). The C Programming Language (2nd ed.). Prentice Hall. pp. 192, 259. ISBN7 302 02412 X.
25. ^'10 Common Programming Mistakes in C++'. Cs.ucr.edu. Retrieved 26 June 2009.
26. ^Schultz, Thomas (2004). C and the 8051 (3rd ed.). Otsego, MI: PageFree Publishing Inc. p. 20. ISBN978-1-58961-237-2. Retrieved 10 February 2012.
27. ^Page 6 of the original K&R^[1]
28. ^ ^abcdefgKlemens, Ben (2013). 21st Century C. O'Reilly Media. ISBN978-1-4493-2714-9.
29. ^Feuer, Alan R.; Gehani, Narain H. (March 1982). 'Comparison of the Programming Languages C and Pascal'. ACM Computing Surveys. 14 (1): 73–92. doi:10.1145/356869.356872.
30. ^Page 122 of K&R2^[14]
31. ^For example, gcc provides _FORTIFY_SOURCE. 'Security Features: Compile Time Buffer Checks (FORTIFY_SOURCE)'. fedoraproject.org. Retrieved 2012-08-05.
32. ^เอี่ยมสิริวงศ์, โอภาศ (2016). Programming with C. Bangkok, Thailand: SE-EDUCATION PUBLIC COMPANY LIMITED. pp. 225–230. ISBN978-616-08-2740-4.
33. ^Raymond, Eric S. (11 October 1996). The New Hacker's Dictionary (3rd ed.). MIT Press. p. 432. ISBN978-0-262-68092-9. Retrieved 5 August 2012.
34. ^Summit, Steve. 'comp.lang.c Frequently Asked Questions 6.23'. Retrieved March 6, 2013.
35. ^Summit, Steve. 'comp.lang.c Frequently Asked Questions 7.28'. Retrieved March 6, 2013.
36. ^'Man Page for lint (freebsd Section 1)'. unix.com. 2001-05-24. Retrieved 2014-07-15.
37. ^McMillan, Robert (2013-08-01). 'Is Java Losing Its Mojo?'. Wired.
38. ^Chip., Weems (2014). Programming and problem solving with C++ : brief, sixth edition. Jones & Bartlett Learning. ISBN978-1449694289. OCLC894992484.
39. ^Dr. Dobb's Sourcebook. U.S.A.: Miller Freeman, Inc. November–December 1995.
40. ^'Using C for CGI Programming'. linuxjournal.com. 1 March 2005. Retrieved 4 January 2010.
41. ^Gerard), O'Regan, Gerard (Cornelius (2015-09-24). Pillars of computing : a compendium of select, pivotal technology firms. ISBN978-3319214641. OCLC922324121.
42. ^Lawrence., Rauchwerger (2004). Languages and compilers for parallel computing : 16th international workshop, LCPC 2003, College Station, TX, USA, October 2-4, 2003 : revised papers. Springer. ISBN978-3540246442. OCLC57965544.
43. ^Stroustrup, Bjarne (1993). 'A History of C++: 1979−1991'(PDF). Retrieved 9 June 2011.

Sources[edit]

• Ritchie, Dennis M. (1993). The Development of the C Language. The second ACM SIGPLAN History of Programming Languages Conference (HOPL-II). Cambridge, MA, USA — April 20–23, 1993: ACM. pp. 201–208. doi:10.1145/154766.155580. ISBN0-89791-570-4. Retrieved 2014-11-04.

Further reading[edit]

• Kernighan, Brian; Ritchie, Dennis (1988). The C Programming Language (2 ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN978-0131103627.(archive)
• Plauger, P.J. (1992). The Standard C library (1 ed.). Prentice Hall. ISBN978-0131315099.(archive)
• Banahan, M.; Brady, D.; Doran, M. (1991). The C Book (2 ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN978-0201544336.(archive)
• Feuer, Alan (1998). The C Puzzle Book (1 ed.). Addison-Wesley. ISBN978-0201604610.(archive)
• Harbison, Samuel; Steele Jr, Guy (2002). C: A Reference Manual (5 ed.). Pearson. ISBN978-0130895929.
• King, K.N. (2008). C Programming: A Modern Approach (2 ed.). W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN978-0393979503.
• Perry, Greg; Miller, Dean (2013). C Programming Absolute Beginner's Guide (3 ed.). Que. ISBN978-0789751980.

External links[edit]

• ISO/IEC 9899, publicly available official C documents, including the C99 Rationale
• 'C99 with Technical corrigenda TC1, TC2, and TC3 included'(PDF).(3.61 MB)
• A History of C, by Dennis Ritchie